![]() As the apparatus of government grew larger and more sophisticated, the appointment of senior officials was still made by the emperor but done so from a shortlist recommended by his advisors. Government, therefore, largely proceeded along the principle of consensus indeed, the ancient Chinese word for 'govern' ( t'ing) also means 'to listen'. The most important ritual, which was performed until the 20th century CE, was the offering of an unblemished bullock at the winter solstice, killed in honour of Heaven.įor this reason, the emperors organised regular court conferences to debate budget, legal and military policy where senior officials were invited to air their opinions and decisions could be taken based on the views of the majority. The emperor was also responsible for the regular sacrifices which honoured his imperial ancestors and for the ceremonial first ploughing each agricultural year. Officially, he performed the most important religious rituals in the calendar which included sacrifices at sacred mountain and river sites. The emperor was expected to support the principles of Confucianism on which many areas of government were based, but he himself could take his pick from any of the current religions such as Buddhism and Taoism for his own personal beliefs. This is how the ruler imitates the ways of Heaven. Thus nobody sees him act and yet he achieves his success. His feet do not move but his ministers lead him forward his mouth utters no word but his chamberlains give him words of support his mind does not concern itself with problems but his ministers put into effect the appropriate action. He sits upon the throne of non-action and rides upon the perfection of his officials. He who is the ruler of men takes non-action as his Way and makes impartiality his treasure. Once a new sovereign had emerged, the aura of the supernatural which surrounded him and the sense of divine endorsement of the office confirmed the emperor's position…Seated on a dragon throne, the Son of Heaven was too sacred an object to be gazed on by mortal eyes, so a screen must intervene. These cases were, fortunately, the exceptions and there remained throughout the centuries a strong reverence for any person who was selected by birth or circumstance to be emperor, as the historian R. ![]() Deaths, suicides, and forced abdications were not unknown amongst the long line of China's emperors. Sometimes even new adult emperors had to contend with powerful officials or relatives who knew better the intricacies of court politics and sought to further their own ambitions rather than those of the state. If an emperor died before his chosen heir was an adult, then the young emperor was advised by high-ranking officials, particularly amongst the eunuchs who dominated life at court for centuries. This situation led to ill-feeling and rivalry between siblings, and there were often deaths and disappearances as a result. Typically, the eldest male son inherited his father's title, but there were cases when an emperor selected another of his children if he deemed him more suitable for rule. As one popular saying goes, recorded by Hsun Tzu:Įmperors usually inherited their position unless they were the founder of a dynasty of their own and had seized power through force. This was also a useful explanation as to why ruling dynasties changed over the centuries: they had lost the blessing of heaven through misrule. If he did not rule well, then China would suffer terrible disasters such as floods and droughts and he would lose the right to govern. ![]() Not actually divine but, rather, ruling on behalf of the gods on earth, the role also carried the great responsibility to take decisions for the good of the people. This was nothing less than a Mandate of Heaven or Tianming, that is, an unchallengeable right to govern. 1050 BCE, claimed he, and, as it conveniently tuned out, all of his successors too, had been given the right to rule by the gods (either Heaven or Sky). The rulers of the Western Zhou dynasty were the first to take the traditional Chinese worship of ancestors a step further and carry the title 'Son of Heaven' ( Tianzi). ![]() Perhaps no other ancient ruler was ever as remote or as revered as the Emperor of China. To gain a personal audience with the emperor, even if he still remained hidden behind a screen while he sat on his golden dragon throne, was the highest of honours. An absolute monarch, although in practice dependent on an inner circle of advisors, the mystique of the emperor was enhanced by his invisibility to ordinary people, secluded as he often was in the imperial palace. Called the 'Son of Heaven', he (and once she) was given a divine right to rule over all people but was expected to promote their best interest and not his own. The emperors of ancient China had tremendous power and responsibility. ![]()
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